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Fine Structure in the Hydrogen Spectrum

Outline

The letter H is used as an icon for atomic hydrogen.

Here is a detailed description of some fine structure in the hydrogen spectrum. It is based on an account of atomic energy levels that are noted by  E. Let an atom of hydrogen  \mathbf{H} change from some initial state  i, to some final state  f, by emitting a photon  \boldsymbol{\gamma}. This is usually written as \mathbf{H}_{i} \to \mathbf{H}_{f} + \boldsymbol{\gamma} . And then, for \Delta \! E \! \left( \mathbf{H} \right) \equiv E \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{f} \right)  -  E \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{i} \right) we write E \! \left( \boldsymbol{\gamma} \right) = - \Delta \! E \! \left( \mathbf{H} \right) . This approach works to perhaps a few parts in a billion. But experimental science marches on, and now observations of the \mathrm{Lyman} \, \alpha photons are being reported with a precision of two parts in 10^{15}. We have to consider ever more subtle possibilities just to stay apace. So for EthnoPhysics, we extend analysis to considering what causes a hydrogen atom to change state, and what other effects may be impressed upon the atom in addition to emitting a photon. We account for the fine structure of hydrogen using a more detailed thermodynamic process that explicitly includes an interaction with some kind of field  \mathscr{F}. Thus we write

\mathbf{H}_{i} + \mathscr{F} \to \mathbf{H}_{f} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

And we also consider that the force due to absorbing these field quanta may do some work   W on the atom by changing its shape. Then for  \Delta \! W \equiv W \! \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{f} \right) - W \! \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{i} \right) we have

E \! \left( \boldsymbol{\gamma} \right) = - \Delta \! E \! \left( \mathbf{H} \right) - \Delta \! W \! \! \left( \mathbf{H} \right)

Sub-Atomic Fields

Here is a repertoire of little kicks and torques used to get hydrogen to jump from state to state. These field quanta are generically noted by  \mathscr{F}. There are no electrochemical quarks in these fields. Energies are typically stated in micro electron-volts. The most important characteristic for classifying these fields is their helicity  \delta_{z}. The atomic quantum numbers  \ell and  s are also relevant. The letter  \text{\L} notes a frequently used collection of quarks that is called the Lamb quantum.

The fine hydrogen spectrum is explained by the field quanta listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

Recall that the internal energy of quark   \mathsf{z} is noted by  U ^{\mathsf{z}}. Then a conjugate difference  \Delta  U^{\mathsf{Z}} and a conjugate mean  \widetilde{U}^{\mathsf{Z}} describe the relationship between quarks and anti-quarks

\Delta U^{\mathsf{Z}} \equiv \dfrac{U^{\mathsf{\overline{z}}}  - \, U^{\mathsf{z}}}{2}

and

\widetilde{U}^{\mathsf{Z}} \equiv  \dfrac{U^{\mathsf{\overline{z}}}  + \, U^{\mathsf{z}}}{2}

Conjugate Differences

of Internal Energy in (ยตeV)

 \zeta \mathsf{Z} \Delta U ^{\mathsf{Z}}
1U12.2
2D-1.10
3E-0.024
4G209
5M-290
7T78.3
8B78.1
9S1.60
10C4.36
15โ’น?
16โ“39.0

all others

0

Usually we assume that the internal-energies of down-quarks are small enough to be completely negligible. Then we write  \widetilde{U}^{\mathsf{D}} \! =0. But the conjugate mean for down quarks, as found from hydrogen observations, is small but not zero. Currently, our best estimate is  \widetilde{U}^{\mathsf{D}} \! = -27 (ยตeV).

Also, we generally make an assumption of conjugate symmetry so that  \Delta U^{\mathsf{Z}} \! =0 and  U^{\mathsf{\overline{z}}} = U^{\mathsf{z}} . But again, these assumptions are not good enough for hydrogen where the differences shown in the accompanying table provide a more accurate description of fine structure in the spectrum.

The energy of  \mathscr{F} is also a function of its spin angular momentum number,  s. The constant of proportionality is k_{\mathsf{spin}} = -91 (ยตeV), so the dependence is slight. But for field quanta, quarks and anti-quarks are paired, mass and charge are always absent, and smaller effects are relevant. Let  N note the quark coefficients of  \mathscr{F}. Then the internal energy is obtained from a sum of these small terms

\displaystyle \delta U \! \left( \mathscr{F} \right) \; \equiv \; s k_{\mathsf{spin}} \; + \; N^{\mathsf{D}} \hspace{1px}   \widetilde{U}^{\mathsf{D}} \; + \; \sum_{\zeta =1}^{16} N^{\zeta} \Delta  U^{\zeta}

Atomic Transitions

EthnoPhysics understands fine structure in the hydrogen spectrum by analyzing the atomic transitions that lead to the production of photons. For example, the {\mathrm{Lyman}} \hspace{2px} {\mathrm{\delta}} quartet of photons supposedly result from the four different atomic transitions

5\mathrm{S} \; + \; \mathscr{F}^{\cwrightarcarrow} \, \to  1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

5\mathrm{P}_{1/2} \; + \; \mathscr{F}^{\downdownarrows} \, \to 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

5\mathrm{P}_{3/2} \; + \; \text{\L} \, \to 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

5\mathrm{D}_{5/2} \; + \; \mathsf{2} \, \mathscr{F}^{\uparrow} \, \to  1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

Each of these processes exhibit a change in the principal quantum number of \Delta {\mathrm{n}} \equiv {\mathrm{n}}_{f} - {\mathrm{n}}_{i} = -4 . This gross effect characterizes the multiplet, along with a transition mean of {\mathrm{\widetilde{n}}} \equiv \left( {\mathrm{n}}_{f} + {\mathrm{n}}_{i} \right) \! /2 =3 and a transition volume of \widetilde{V} \equiv \left( a_{\mathsf{o}} \widetilde{\mathrm{n}} \right)^{3} where a_{\mathsf{o}} is the Bohr radius. Any spin-flips are described by

\Delta_\mathsf{Z} \equiv \dfrac{ \delta_{z} \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{f} \right) + \delta_{z} \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{i} \right) }{2}

And a directed unit volume is specified as \widehat{V} \equiv \left( a_{\mathsf{o}} \Delta_{\mathsf{Z}} \right)^{3}. Changes in other atomic quantum numbers like   \Delta j and   \Delta \ell then describe smaller variations in the resulting photon.

Different atomic transitions are associated with different forces. For example consider {\mathscr{F}}^{\downdownarrows}, the double-down force shown in the table above. It accounts for the following processes which are generically noted by 1{\mathrm{S}} \!  - \!  X{\mathrm{P}}_{1/2}

3\mathrm{P}_{1/2} \! + \mathscr{F}^{\downdownarrows} \! \to \! 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

4\mathrm{P}_{1/2} \! + \mathscr{F}^{\downdownarrows} \! \to \! 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

etc.

There are two atomic transitions that occur without any precipitating force. They are  3{\mathrm{S}} \! - \! 3{\mathrm{D}}_{3/2} and  4{\mathrm{S}} \! - \! 4{\mathrm{D}}_{3/2} . These are the simplest processes, but in general, quark models of photons may be much more complicated. And interactions could possibly involve endlessly more complex loops and wiggles. So to make simple models, we impose a boundary condition: Out of all possible interactions, the only transitions that we actually attend to are described by a few specific values of  \xi, the transition type where

\xi \equiv \Delta j + \Delta \ell + \Delta \! N^{\textcircled{\raisebox{.5pt}{\sf{\tiny{L}}}}}

Recall that  N^{\textcircled{\raisebox{.5pt}{\sf{\tiny{L}}}}} notes the quantity of levo quarks in an atomic state. For hydrogen  \xi takes on some integer values between -8 and +5. For example, consider the following transitions which are generically noted as 1{\mathrm{S}} \! - \! X{\mathrm{S}}

9\mathrm{S} + \mathscr{F}^{\cwrightarcarrow} \! \to \! 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

7\mathrm{S} + \mathscr{F}^{\cwrightarcarrow} \! \to \! 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

etc.

Mathematically, the entire class is identified by  \xi=+4. And here is another series, generically written as 1{\mathrm{S}} \! - \! X {\mathrm{D}}_{5/2} and mathematically described by  \xi=-4

9\mathrm{D}_{5/2} \! + \mathsf{2} \mathscr{F}^{\uparrow} \! \to \! 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

7\mathrm{D}_{5/2} \! + \mathsf{2} \mathscr{F}^{\uparrow} \! \to \! 1\mathrm{S} + \boldsymbol{\gamma}

etc.

All the foregoing interactions yield a photon and nothing else, no debris. They may also do some work  W on the atom by changing its shape. We use  \xi to describe  \Delta W by assessing changes to the norm of the radius vector which is written as

 \Delta \rho \equiv \left\| \, \overline{\rho}_{f} \rule{0px}{11px} \right\| - \left\| \, \overline{\rho}_{i} \rule{0px}{11px} \right\|

Field quanta are  \mathsf{q \overline{q} } pairs that are usually presumed to have perfect conjugate symmetry. For this ideal case  \Delta \rho =0 . But in the finely-balanced mechanical system of a hydrogen atom, we notice a small change described by

 \Delta \rho = {\mathrm{b}} + \mathrm{h} \hspace{1px} \widetilde{\mathrm{n}}^{\hspace{2px} 3\epsilon}

The fine hydrogen spectrum is explained by the transition characteristics listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

where  \epsilon \equiv (-1)^{\xi}. The transition characteristic  {\mathrm{b}}(\xi) is named the shell thickness, and  {\mathrm{h}}(\xi) is called the shear deformation. These distances are tiny, effects are measured in micro electronvolts as shown in the adjoining table.1These adjustable parameters are supplementary fine-structure constants. Since there are 14 of them, data compression is limited. But they enable a systematic description that is succinct. The change of shape is combined with the change of internal-energy caused by absorbing  \mathscr{F} to define the transition energy density as

\widetilde{\varrho} \equiv \dfrac{ \delta U \! \left( \mathscr{F} \right) + k_{\mathsf{F}} \Delta \rho }{\widetilde{V}}

where the constant  k_{\sf{F}} was introduced earlier. Then the work done by  \mathscr{F} on  \mathbf{H} is given by

\Delta \! W = \widetilde{\varrho} \hspace{2px} \widehat{V}

Hydrogen Spectrum Photons

Quark coefficients for the excited states of hydrogen are known. And coefficients for the transition forces  \mathscr{F} that cause hydrogen to jump from state to state are specified in the table above. Then since quarks are conserved we can make photon models just by adding and subtracting quark coefficients as prescribed by the following processes which are generically written as \mathbf{H}_{i} + \mathscr{F} \to \mathbf{H}_{f} + \boldsymbol{\gamma} . This method automatically conserves charge, momentum, etc.

Lyman Series

Fine-spectrum photon models are listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

Balmer Series

Fine-spectrum photon models are listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

Other Multiplets

Fine-spectrum photon models are listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

Fine Structure Wavelengths

Measurements of photons report on their wavelength, which is related to their energy by \lambda = hc/E \! \left( \boldsymbol{\gamma} \right). Wavelengths may also depend on a photon’s surroundings. Then the symbol \lambda _{\mathsf{o}} is used to indicate a wavelength where environmental effects are negligible. We assume this to write

\lambda_{\mathsf{o}} = \dfrac{hc}{-\Delta \! E - \Delta \! W}

Values of E \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{i} \right) and E \! \left( \mathbf{H}_{f} \right) are obtained from the description of atomic hydrogen. And, as shown above, shape changes are described by \Delta \! W = \widetilde{\varrho} \hspace{2px} \widehat{V} .

The wavelengths calculated from the foregoing formulae are compared with experimental observations2Helmut Hellwig, Robert F. C. Vessot, Martin W. Levine, Paul W. Zitzewitz, David W. Allan and David J. Glaze. Measurement of the Unperturbed Hydrogen Hyperfine Transition Frequency . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers โ€“ Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Volume IM-19, Number 4, November 1970., 3Kramida, A., Ralchenko, Yu., Reader, J., and NIST ASD Team (2015). NIST Atomic Spectra Database (version. 5.3). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA. and shown below. Results marked by X are outside of experimental uncertainty. For more detail about these calculations, please see the spreadsheets in the files stored here.

Lyman Wavelengths

Fine-spectrum photon wavelengths are listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

Balmer Wavelengths

Fine-spectrum photon wavelengths are listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

Other Transitions

Fine-spectrum photon wavelengths are listed in this spreadsheet screen-shot.

The  4\mathrm{P}_{1/2} - 4\mathrm{P}_{3/2} transition has been assigned by Kramida et al. And all adjustable parameters have been tested to represent that datum. But still, the observation does not completely agree with the theory presented above. However, it surprisingly fits perfectly with calculations for the  4\mathrm{P}_{1/2} - 4\mathrm{D}_{3/2} transition, even within an experimental uncertainty that is 4 or 5 times tighter. For additional detail about these calculations, please see the Atoms and Photons spreadsheet.

References
1 These adjustable parameters are supplementary fine-structure constants. Since there are 14 of them, data compression is limited. But they enable a systematic description that is succinct.
2 Helmut Hellwig, Robert F. C. Vessot, Martin W. Levine, Paul W. Zitzewitz, David W. Allan and David J. Glaze. Measurement of the Unperturbed Hydrogen Hyperfine Transition Frequency . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers โ€“ Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Volume IM-19, Number 4, November 1970.
3 Kramida, A., Ralchenko, Yu., Reader, J., and NIST ASD Team (2015). NIST Atomic Spectra Database (version. 5.3). National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, USA.
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