Neutrinos

Neutrinos are some of the field quanta that may be part of an electromagnetic field. On this page we present quark-models for six neutrinos that have been detected in the laboratory. But neutrinos are just barely big enough to be observed. So in the following discussion, we also evaluate hundreds of candidates that could almost be neutrinos, but which have not been seen.

Neutrino Definitions

Historically neutrinos were proposed to account for changes in the energy and momenta of atoms when they undergo beta decay. This process supposedly emitted a neutrino. And various conservation laws put some limitations on the characteristics that a neutrino could have:

• Neutrinos must have a total angular momentum quantum number of
• Neutrinos must be neutral so that their charge quantum number is
• Neutrinos must have a very small rest mass or perhaps none at all. So

For EthnoPhysics, any compound quark that meets these criteria is called a neutrino candidate. But if it also has an imaginary mass, then we call it a neutrino.

Neutrino Models

For EthnoPhysics, neutrinos are conceived as the union of two components, a roton and a stereoisomer. The roton provides some angular momentum and the stereoisomer determines whether the rotation is clockwise or counter-clockwise. Thus neutrinos are the smallest particles that can represent fully three dimensional rotation. Both the roton and the stereoisomer are ‘painted’ by their leptonic qualities. So the resulting neutrino is expressed with leptonic characteristics too.

By analyzing particle interactions, all observed neutrinos are associated with an electron, muon or tauon. So empirically there are three sorts of neutrino, each with a conjugate-twin, for a total of 6 particles. Here are models for these neutrinos that are made from 16 or 24 quarks. Complicated models using more quarks are possible. But they are unneeded and we do not consider them further.

The first example is called an electronic-neutrino. Its rotation is due to an electronic roton . The neutrino’s handedness comes from an electronic stereoisomer Se. Thus the electronic neutrino is defined by

{ S e }

Another neutrino can be composed from the union of a muonic roton , and a muonic stereoisomer Sμ. The muonic neutrino is defined as

{S μ }

Finally, the combination of a tauonic roton , with an elementary stereoisomer S, defines the tauonic neutrino by

{ S}

Sensory Interpretation: The electronic-neutrino is defined by the union of an electronic-roton with an electronic-stereoisomer . The electronic character of these quanta is specified in association with saturated-yellow sensations. That is, all four quarks in the stereoisomer are electric quarks.

The muonic-neutrino is defined by the union of a muonic-roton with a muonic-stereoisomer. The muonic quality of these quanta is associated with saturated-red colors. That is, all four quarks in the stereoisomer are amperic quarks.

Finally, the tau-neutrino is composed from a mix of leptonic-quarks representing yellow and red chromatic sensations. It could vaguely represent an orange visual experience.

Next we look at some quark models for these neutrinos. They are all built-up around the familial pattern of four up-seeds shown on the left. Particles with different lepton-numbers or parity are modeled by including various quarks around this common kernel. This nugget is the minimum necessary to distinguish the neutrinos from other particle families.  Nuclear particles are classified on this basis.

The foregoing definitions of neutrinos can be stated in terms of quarks. And then neutrino characteristics can be determined from quark-coefficients. For more detail, here are some spreadsheets showing the calculations. The most striking feature about these neutrinos is that they all have an imaginary mass.

Summary of Observed Neutrinos

Experimental Comparison

The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino experiment measures the mass of electronic anti-neutrinos via tritium beta-decays close to their kinematic endpoint. This method is independent of any cosmological model or assumptions about whether neutrinos are their own anti-particles. Results indicate¹The KATRIN Collaboration, Direct neutrino-mass measurement based on 259 days of KATRIN data . ArXiv Preprint, June 2024. an upper limit on the mass of of not more than 0.45 (eV/c²). This is consistent with the EthnoPhysics neutrino-models shown above. But having an imaginary mass is not exactly the same as having an extremely small mass. So more study is called for.

For example, according to Petcov (2013), “It is natural to suppose that the remarkable smallness of neutrino masses is related to the existence of a new fundamental mass scale in particle physics, and thus to new physics beyond that predicted by the Standard Model. A comprehensive theory of the neutrino masses and mixing should be able to explain the indicated enormous disparity between the neutrino masses and the masses of the charged leptons … “²Serguey T. Petcov, The Nature of Massive Neutrinos . Advances in High Energy Physics, April 2013.

More recently, in 2022 the KATRIN collaborators reaffirmed that, “… neutrino masses are at least five orders of magnitude smaller than the mass of any other fermion of the standard model, which may point to a different underlying mass-creation mechanism … “³The KATRIN Collaboration, Direct neutrino-mass measurement with sub-electronvolt sensitivity . Nature Physics, Volume 18, February 2022.

At EthnoPhysics, we hear the call for a better understanding of mass. And furthermore we offer a suggestion for the needed “mass-creation mechanism”.

An intriguing detail about neutrinos concerns the handedness of their rotation. “Remarkably, all known elementary fermions except neutrinos come in pairs of opposite chirality … Neutrinos, however, so far have only been observed as LH [left-handed] particles.”⁴Marco Drewes, The Phenomenology of Right Handed Neutrinos. International Journal of Modern Physics E, Volume 22, Number 08, 2013. Another report states that, “At present there is no compelling evidence for the existence of states of relativistic neutrinos … which are predominantly right-handed … “⁵Serguey T. Petcov, The Nature of Massive Neutrinos . Advances in High Energy Physics, April 2013.

These experimental observations are accurately reproduced by the models shown above. By inspection of the summary table, all of the ordinary neutrinos that have a lepton number of are left-handed. And all of their conjugate-twins, the anti-neutrinos, are right-handed.

Other Possible Neutrinos?

There are hundreds of ways to form a neutral lepton having The possibilities are called candidate neutrinos. So next we consider some of these candidates in detail and state selection rules that limit their occurrence. First we look at variations in stereochemical quark content. Particles are assessed using the notion of a stereochemical-twin.

Selection by Parity

The stereochemical twin of any particle is noted by an underline as . It is defined by exchanging stereochemical quarks with their anti-quarks, while leaving all other types of quarks unchanged. So for example if contains and then its stereochemical-twin is composed from and More generally, let be characterized by the coefficients of its levo quarks and its dextro quarks Then the coefficients of its stereochemical-twin are related as

and

Substituting these formulae into the definition of handedness shows that if is right-handed, then is left-handed, and vice versa. A particle and its stereochemical-twin always have opposite handedness.

Here is a table showing some stereochemical variation in neutrinos. We present a limited selection from among many candidates, together with each observed neutrino. Stereochemical-twins are noted with an underline. And candidates specified by substituting levo-quarks for dextro-quarks are marked with a little curl on the left like this, ⱴ.

Inspecting this table shows that candidates exhibit small differences in their enthalpy that can be noticed around the seventh decimal-place. They vary because elementary-stereoisomers and lefty stereoisomers have different internal energies. This is due to an inequality of about 20 milli electronvolts in the size of stereochemical-quarks: Dextro-quarks are just a little bit bigger than levo-quarks.

Because of this size difference, candidates that contain 4 dextro-quarks will always have the most-positive or the most-negative enthalpies compared to candidates that have dextro and levo mixtures.

Thus we may establish the lateral-size selection-rule by choosing candidates that have the smallest value of where marks the lepton number. Recall that and that it changes sign depending on if lateral sensations are felt on the left or right-side. Also, remember that represents a size. So this rule appraises candidates by their laterally graded sizes. It identifies S as the relevant stereoisomer in the neutrinos which have actually been observed.

A close look at the foregoing table also shows that the lateral-size selection-rule favors left-handed neutrinos and right-handed anti-neutrinos over their stereochemical-twins. So this selection-rule explains the experimentally observed bias⁶Marco Drewes, The Phenomenology of Right Handed Neutrinos. International Journal of Modern Physics E, Volume 22, Number 08, 2013. in the distribution of neutrino handedness.

The table also shows how the stereochemical-twins of observed neutrinos violate the semantic selection-rule. That is, so their chirality and their handedness are not coordinated. This is indicated in the table with red lettering. Therefore these candidates are dismissed, and the remaining candidates can be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic parity

Please notice that the candidates that satisfy the lateral-size selection-rule all have even parity. The combined effect of choosing candidates for their semantics and by their parity is equivalent to selection by lateral-size. So we introduce a parity selection-rule by requiring that for all neutrinos. And since we already require semantic consistency, we can sift through neutrino candidates using just the parity selection-rule.

Sensory Interpretation: For EthnoPhysics the size of a quark expresses how we are more conscious of some sensations than others.  So the foregoing observation that dextro-quarks are bigger than levo-quarks is explained by a difference in our collective awareness of the two oral sensations that define these quarks. That is, a difference between sugary tastes and savoury flavours.

Any such difference is subject to strong cultural influences and individual preferences. But despite enormous ethnic and personal variation, the vast human experience of these flavours is apparently almost perfectly balanced.⁷Perhaps related to the way sensory ranges and midpoints are affected by the biochemistry of sugars and amino acids. Or even more fundamentally, this balance could possibly be due to the background stability of parahydrogen over orthohydrogen. Therefore most large particles have no net intrinsic parity and we can usually say that ‘parity is conserved’. Any remaining imbalance is almost negligible, but still manifest in the biased handedness of small electrons⁸C. S. Wu, E. Ambler, R. W. Hayward, D. D. Hoppes, and R. P. Hudson. Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay Physical Review 105, February, 1957. and tiny neutrinos.

Selection by Mass

EthnoPhysics has a quantitative theory of mass. So we have established a mass selection-rule by requiring that candidates must have an imaginary mass to be defined as a neutrino. To apply this rule we next assess the mass of 612 possible neutrinos. We only consider candidates made from 16 quarks. And models that have uneven quark-coefficients cannot form ground states so they are ignored. Therefore the following assessment is not exhaustive.

To begin, we first eliminate all possibilities obtained by substituting levo-quarks for dextro-quarks. In the table above these candidate neutrinos are marked with a little curl on the left like this, ⱴ. They cannot satisfy the lateral-size selection-rule because candidates that contain 4 dextro-quarks will always have the most-positive or the most-negative enthalpies compared to candidates that have dextro and levo mixtures. This leaves 306 possible neutrinos for further consideration.

As a further restriction, we only consider candidates made from 16 quarks. This is because the 24-quark models are all formed from 16-quark models plus a dark photon. And the additional photon is too small to alter the neutrino’s mass.

Electronic Candidates

This block of candidates includes particles with the smallest positive internal energy, 716 (MeV).

Muonic Candidates

These candidates include the smallest and largest masses at 13 and 5,289 (MeV/c2). And also the largest internal-energy, 10,458 (MeV).

Tauonic Candidates

Semipole Candidates

This block contains the excellent candidates, Numbers 61 and 62, which have an imaginary mass.

Dim Candidates

For dim neutrinos, all rotating quarks are of the down-type.

Amperic Neutrinos

The foregoing mass calculations are lengthy, but the final result is simple: There are eight candidates that have an imaginary mass. Six of them have already been shown above as the observed neutrinos. But there are also two more; an ordinary neutrino and its conjugate-twin. We call them amperic neutrinos and note them with They are defined by the quark-coefficients in this table.

All observed neutrinos are associated with charged leptons. And we think that could also be linked to decomposition of the tauon. There are dozens of different decays like this.⁹S. Navas et al. (Particle Data Group), Phys. Rev. D110, 030001 (2024). Could some of the many ‘tauonic’ neutrinos produced in these decays actually be amperic-neutrinos? Perhaps not because is about four times bigger than the others. Anyway, the production of K^✻(892) seems to be especially interesting.